The Woman Warrior

Brittany Tiano Ms. Wenzel WLS Tutorial 24 October 2012 Reality vs. Fantasy: Kingston’s use of Juxtaposition in The Woman Warrior In The Woman Warrior, Maxine Hong Kingston writes an honest memoir that focuses in on the lives of five woman; the most important being Kingston, and is told in 5 chapters. As a reader, we get a glimpse into the realities of life for many Chinese emigrants in America and their children. Kingston, who is the narrator in the book, creates an elaborate fantasy in the second chapter, called â€Å"White Tigers†.In it, Kingston portrays a strong warrior woman, who leads her army to victory by overthrowing the emperor at his palace. In reality, she was in America, struggling to get noticed by the unfamiliar people surrounding her. This section of the book bares great importance because it shows the authors use of juxtaposition on the girls reality and a fantasy world she wishes to be in. Readers feel sympathy that she can’t reach her goal of b ecoming a warrior, but must be stuck in an unfamiliar country where she is ignored and made fun of. Life in America was not all it was cracked up to be.Kingston learned this pretty quick. Since she was of chinese dissent, she had a very slim chance of ever becoming anything big, maybe an owner of a laundromat, but that’s it. Men would be especially difficult for Kingston to get the hang of as well. She tried to look feminine and be sweet but nothing worked. At school she wasn’t respected. At work she wasn’t respected. While working at an art store, her boss was telling her to order more of a certain type of yellow and he used the â€Å"N† word to describe it. She says, â€Å"‘I don’t like that word,’ I had to say in my bad, small persons voice that makes no impact.The boss never deigned to answer†(Kingston 48). In America, Kingston is especially down on herself and winey: â€Å"Nobody supports me at the expense of his own adven ture. Then I get bitter: no one supports me; I am not loved enough to be supported†(Kingston 48). She feels like she has nobody to turn to, nobody to relate to, and worst of all, nobody to love her; which made being in America harder for her. In reality, a woman's place in society was beneath those of men, and then being an Asian-American woman would direct her to the bottom of the food chain.In a quick second though, things would change and she was a whole new person. This was possible in her fantasy world, one which she created in her minds eye and loved to be in. Imagine being two people at once; only one of them turned off and the other brought to life. That’s how kingston felt when she was in her fantasy world of being a warrior. She trained for 15 years to be the best she could be and impressed all who she met. She had the ability to give life; giving birth to a baby boy, and take life; executing many targets she had seen in the magical gourd.As the author writes this, you can see just how juxtaposed the two worlds are and wish that Kingston lived a better life, or that the fantasy could become a reality. In her fantasy, she has a son, confidence, a killer army (literally), and a loving husband. She has such passion for going after men that had impressed her brother and father: â€Å"I watched the baron’s piggish face chew open-mouthed on the sacrificial pig. I plunged my hand into the gourd, making a grab for his thick throat†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Kingston 45). She was so eager to destroy him and get her family members back.Such confidence then led to a numerous army that would â€Å"attack fiefdoms† and â€Å"pursue enemies† that she had seen in the gourd. Kingston notes, â€Å"I inspired my army, and I fed them†¦ We brought order where ever we went†¦ I won over a goodly number of fighters†¦ † (Kingston 37). She practically had people bowing down to her, and for once in her life, she was loved, a wish sh e had had for so long. She realized that her â€Å"son was so delighted that the shiny general was his mother too† and a sense of accomplishment and honor was brought about her. (Kingston 45). Between this fictional life, and her reality, she was stuck in a rut.Right off the bat, Kingston tells the reader that her American life has been such a disappointment† (Kingston 45). Being an Asian-American was no easy task. Kingston suffered through bias, and it came â€Å"to the point that as long as you ‘look’ Asian, you’re open to attack, regardless of which group you belong to†¦ † (Lindsey). The most interesting part of this chapter is the last few pages when Kingston gets back to talking about her fantasy life. She says, â€Å"I mustn’t feel bad that i haven't done as well as the swordswoman did; after all, no bird called me, no wise old people tutored me. I have no magic beads, no water gourd sight†¦My brain had momentarily lost it’s depth perception. I was that eager to find an unusual bird†(Kingston 49). In this last part, Kingston self-reflects on her fantasy and how badly she wants it. She feels like if she just looks hard enough for the signs; the bird, the clouds, the mountains, she’ll find her way to the old people’s home and fulfill her fantasy. As readers, we know this will never happen, which makes us feel sympathetic that her future will never be as appealing as she wants it to be. There are numerous examples of juxtaposition throughout the book but this chapter most likely held the bulk of them.Maxine Kingston’s writing was filled with stories and unfortunate realities that made a reader understand what it was like to be so different now matter how much she did to blend in. The opposition between the two lives gave us an inside look of a culture’s myth brought to an imagination, and a reality that pain staked a girl to disliking a place that she lived. K ingston, Maxine Hong. The Woman Warrior. New York: Vintage International, 1976. Print. Lindsey, Robert. â€Å"Asian-Americans See Growing Bias. † New York Times 10 09 1983, Special Edition n. pag. Web. 24 Oct. 2012. .

Moral matters Essay

PRAYER is the center for Jesus. Religion has two aspects: On the one hand it maintains certain standards of conduct, on the other it affirms certain beliefs about the ultimate nature of the universe. It is prayer which connects the two. Without it the one of these would be ethics, and the other would be theology. Prayer makes them elements in religion. In prayer the individual brings together God, life’s ideal values, and himself. It is evident from the gospels that Jesus believed in prayer, told men to pray, and prayed himself. Mark narrates how early in the morning before others are about he withdraws to the desert to pray (Mark 1:35). Late in the evening after teaching the multitudes all day he goes into a mountain to pray (Mark 6:46). The hours before the arrest are spent in prayer. Luke is particularly interested in the prayers of Jesus, and adds to Mark’s account various other references. At the time of the baptism, when the heavens opened and he saw the vision, he was praying (Mark 14:32). When the multitudes crowded upon him after the healing of the leper, â€Å"he withdrew into the deserts and prayed (Luke 3:21). † Before choosing the Twelve, and before he asked the disciples what they thought of himself, he was in prayer (Luke 5:16). The Transfiguration occurred when he was at prayer (Luke 6:12, 9:18). The request of the disciples, â€Å"Lord, teach us to pray,† was made at the close of one of his periods of prayer (Luke 9:28). Some of these may be editorial additions in order to provide settings for sayings or incidents where the actual occasion had been forgotten, but there can be no doubt that they represent an authentic record of the practice of Jesus. One notices immediately several facts about these acts of prayer. In the first place, a considerable number of them occur at times of decision and crisis. Important junctures and turning points in Jesus’ career were approached after long periods of silent meditation and prayer. In the second place, one notes that prayer was for Jesus a refreshing and invigorating experience. From the turmoil, confusion, and fatigue of dealing with the multitudes he sought refuge in withdrawals for quiet prayer. His words to his disciples show what these retreats meant to himself. â€Å"Come ye yourselves apart into a desert place and rest awhile,† he said when they returned telling of their strenuous campaign through the cities and villages of Galilee (Guignebert 67). Such experiences of rest, reflection, and prayer Jesus himself had found necessary in order to carry on the spiritually and emotionally exhausting undertaking in which he was engaged. Such a practice of prayer throws valuable light on Jesus’ own religion. In spite of his clarity of mind and intuitive understanding of religious and moral matters, in spite too of his independence and the authority with which he taught, it is evident that Jesus had no sense of religious self-sufficiency and personal adequacy. His intuitive moral judgments and his consciousness of authority to proclaim God’s will were rather the results of these hours in which he sought to ascertain the purposes of God and to be led by him. If one should ask what Jesus taught about prayer, it must be answered that he gave very little definite teaching. There were certain things he said about it, but he gave no set rules or systematic directions for prayer. To him it was an intensely personal thing, and never to be reduced to form or ritual. Professor Bundy, speaking of Jesus’ retreats for the purpose of prayer, remarks that there was no regularity about these retreats. â€Å"They were in no sense a part of a prayer system. For Jesus prayer was not a traditional religious exercise to be engaged in and observed at certain set hours, but the spontaneous impromptu practice of an intense personal piety. † Indeed one learns more about prayer as Jesus practiced it from his own prayers recorded in the gospels than from any instructions he gave about praying. By putting together precept and practice one can learn something of his conception of prayer and the objects for which he thought men should pray (Taylor 145-50). First and foremost should be placed the fact that Jesus repeatedly and in the strongest possible language urged his hearers to pray. â€Å"Ask, and it shall be given you; seek, and ye shall find; knock, and it shall be opened unto you: for every one that asketh receiveth; and he that seeketh findeth; and to him that knocketh it shall be opened. Or what man is there of you, who, if his son ask for a loaf, will he give him a stone; or if he ask for a fish, will he give him a serpent? If ye then, being evil, know how to give good gifts unto your children, how much more shall your Father who is in heaven give good things to them that ask him? † (Matt. 7: 11) On other occasions he was even more emphatic. â€Å"If ye have faith as a grain of mustard seed,† he said in extreme illustration, â€Å"ye shall say unto this mountain, Remove hence to yonder place; and it shall remove; and nothing shall be impossible unto you. † By such words he tried to impress upon his hearers that God gives heed to prayer. For he knew that the reason men do not pray is that they do not believe that anything will be accomplished by it. God does hear and answer the prayer of faith. To Jesus prayer was not a process of autosuggestion or a devotional ritual with subjective values, but an actual source of power for accomplishment (Pannenberg 267)

“The Arrival” Annaylisis

â€Å"The Arrival,† illustrated by Shaun Tan, presents the visual story of a migrant’s experience as he leaves his home and family to create a better life for them in an unseen country, mirroring a migrant’s life upon migrating to a 1990s New York City, showing his experience of poverty, home sickness, language difficulties, separation from family and loss of social status. The purpose of the book was to represent what many immigrants experienced and reflect their memories of travelling to foreign countries, and for Shaun Tan to depict his experience of growing up in one of the most isolated cities in the world, as he discovered a sense of separation, an unclear conception of identity and questioned what it means to be â€Å"Australian†. The target audience is immigrants who can relate to this book, although there is no particular audience as it can relate to everyone for the book questions every day experiences. The concept of belonging is explored within this text with the use of language features. It uses flashbacks represented in a dark sepia tone, suggesting the past and pain of the trauma of these stories. The sharing of these experiences bonds the arrival to the people within this new environment, creating a place where he feels he can belong. Symbolism is employed, such as the alien creature and the white origami bird who befriend the father. They are representatives of how belonging is about people and relationships and not the locations for these are unstable. This acts as a reminder of where he comes from and inspires him to continue through difficult times. The visual angles create emotion, tension and a sense of individual opinion on belonging among a third person narrative. It uses visual metaphors such as the dragon’s tail that, as a faceless threat, slithers through the old town, providing the push for change and the creation of a new place to belong. There is an absence of written descriptions, which allows individual interpretation and as a result, the belonging experiences of one family becomes a reflection of many. The text has affected my response by having no words, therefore allowing me to create meaning for myself. I was positioned in the characters shoes with the absence of writing, and therefore made my own interpretations. It showed me how it felt to not belong visually with the use of images of different cities around the world. The texts develop my understanding of belonging because it showed me migration is an inessential part of human history. The visual text allowed me to understand what feeling and emotions are felt when you are taken away from your family and then moving to another country.

Decision-making process in business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Decision-making process in business - Essay Example Sales of electric blankets were unusually high at this time. Sales of grills were also unusually high during the fourth quarter. These financial bungling unfolded the actual state of affairs in Sunbeam. Al Dunlap's four step plan impacting financial, personnel, core business and strategy of Sunbeam had elements of controversy. The changes they brought about were fundamental and drastic. They failed to foresee the long term impact of their actions. They did not cater to the rule that balance is the key to most successes. As for public relations, Al Dunlap's arrogance that his Mean Business policies were accountable for Sunbeam's turnaround caused investors and the public to question Sunbeam's integrity. Dunlap aired his views that his "Dream team" sees opportunities where others see impossibilities. Al Dunlap's management team performance was flawed from the beginning. They failed to: (1) consider that cost cutting on a mass scale is counter productive, (2) realize that cutting down such a huge amount of jobs is actually downsizing business, and (3) categorize core business as profit making exercise rather than link each product with Sunbeam and sell off those that did not fall within the five categories of core business. The lessons that could be learnt from the outcome are that one must exercise more caution and care in turning around companies.

DISCUSS THE SCIENTIFIC STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF EVOLUTIONARY Essay

DISCUSS THE SCIENTIFIC STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY - Essay Example that the study of biology is significantly connected with the study of psychology, a lot of philosophers and psychologists are convinced that combining both could enable them to develop a more scientific explanation behind the study of the human minds. In the process, psychologists and scientists have been supporting the progress of the evolutionary psychology. Despite many people who believes in the purpose of evolutionary psychology, there are also several critiques who questions its scientific validity. and ‘natural selection.’ Dawkins (1986) and Williams (1966) explain that the natural selection allows the evolutionary process to be able to acknowledge a more complex functional organization into the phenotype of the species. In the book written by George William (1966) Adaptation and Natural Selection, he discussed the issue on the importance of ‘adaptationist approach’ in terms of examining the reasons behind the ability of human mind to adapt with its environment. In line with this matter, James (1890) announces that the application of an evolutionary approach could enable us to learn more information from what our own instinct fails to determine. In the process wherein psychologists and philosophers are able to distinguish and realize the fact that: (1) natural competence really exists; and (2) the human brain is one example that is characterized by such a complex competences, we are able to develop a possible theory behind the design of the human mind . Adaptations are important since it could enable the psychologists and philosophers to solve a problem. (Williams, 1966) Dawkins (1986) also gave emphasis that through the principles of adaptation approach, evolutionary biologists and psychologists could be able to find a more concrete ideas and solution to the problems that may arise behind the study of the human mind structure. Prior to the evolutionary psychology, philosophers and scientists strongly agree that the human mind resembles a

Website Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Website Summary - Essay Example The Emperor was always an honorable man, who was never to inherit the throne. He started off with an oath called Wahlkapitulation, and ended either in death, resignation or removal of the Emperor. And he had priority over every Christian King. During a reign, the next ruler was called King of Romans. In case of the Emperor being unfit and no King of Romans, two Imperial Vicars had the ultimate authority. The Emperor had both a real and fake household consisting of the High Offices of the Empire. He had jurisdiction over a lot of aspects but had his limitations. Powers exercised by the Emperor alone, were called Jura Reservata. The title of Emperor was first used on Christmas Day 800, and was finalized in 812 by Byzantium. The title, Kings of Romans eventually lost charm and was later known as German King or Imperator. The Reichstag was the law-making committee of the Empire. It composed of: the Electoral Council, Council of Princes, and Council of Imperial Cities. State of the Empire was a member of the Reichstag. The owners of the land concerning to a State equally shared its vote in the Reichstag. Under certain circumstances, a land could stop being a State of the Empire. Different States had the right to become united with others. At first the vote belonged to the landlord, but later, only certain families had the right to vote. Elector Princes were responsible for selection of the Emperor, headed by the archbishop of Mainz, who dominated all Princes. Electors cast their vote personally, allowed others to do it, or sent an electoral body for the purpose. This was usually done within a month of the Emperor’s death. And the chosen Emperor was crowned by the three divine princes. The 2nd body of Reichstag composed of Princes, who voted individually, and Lords, who voted collectively. In the later years, very few Princes were given the right to vote at the Reichstag. On

How to Create a Successful Healthcare Policy and Get It Implemented Assignment

How to Create a Successful Healthcare Policy and Get It Implemented - Assignment Example In creating or reforming the health sector, creating health policies is just one of the process towards ensuring its effectiveness and efficiency in tackling peoples’ health care problems and challenges. The second step is assessing the availability of resources necessary in the implementation of the health care policy; this is an essential process because it allows for planning on ways of acquiring other resources that are critical to the success of the process. Resources include both human and non-human; it is important to ensure that successful implementation of the policy requires qualified personnel in the healthcare sector, sufficient funding and reliable infrastructure. Evaluation of the effectiveness of the policy is important in making necessary adjustments to ensure that set goals and objectives are met as stipulated in the policy. Stakeholders play an important role in the successful implementation of the health policy; they play an oversight role, guiding in the implementation of steps planned. Stakeholders are also important in creating resources needed for implementing the set goals and objectives in the policy; the source of funds, create partnerships with the government and other interested agencies. At the same time, they are essential in setting policy benchmarks as well as help in the process of creating human capital required in the successful implementation of the plan. Every policy is set with the aim of achieving its documented objectives, however, failure to stick to the plan as outlined in the process can contribute to its failure. It is expected that there will be collaboration and consultations in the implementation process. When these processes are not present, the policy is always bound to fail (Mason 2012), when there is no line of command and authority control, the implementation lacks direction and hence fails to achieve its set objectives.  Ã‚   In addition, when there is a lack of resources and commitment from the government and other stakeholders, policy creation and successful implementation is always destined for failure.     

Role of Police with Reference to Community Issues Essay

Role of Police with Reference to Community Issues - Essay Example Microsoft, Oracle, Satyam Computers, Tata Computer Services, and other educational institutions which have established their branches in the different countries do need man power, for which they need to provide necessary facilities. In this context, certain housing associations are pretty much indulged in the process of providing housing facilities. In such condition, where world meets world, different nationalities, race, colour, caste, community, it is inevitable that there would be certain issues arising every now and then. Therefore, it is necessary there should be certain policies developed by the housing association to combat such issues. In United Kingdom, Pennine Housing 2000 is one such association which provides shelter facilities on rent by complying with the regulations set up by the regulatory authority. Pennine Housing 2000 established in 2001 is Calderdale's largest and registered social landlord, managing the rented housing stock just over 11,000 properties.2 It states that the rents are kept low so that it is within the reach of everybody and standard of homes are constantly improving due to improvement programmes.3 The company has gained support and funding from Housing Corporation to continue to regenerate number of areas, replacing unpopular and rundown properties to newly built housing estates. During the Annual Tenants Conference, a tenant expressed that 99% of tenants view Peninne Housing 2000 with great respect as it is doing stupendous work while remaining 1% want more and much greater services.4 The company has always focused on meeting high standards for which over 112 million between 2001 to 2006 were spent on internal improvements, new central heating systems, and external works such as new doors, re-roofing etc. The company also promises tenancy rights of the tenan t through tenancy agreement. Pennine was recognized nationally within the social housing sector. At the National Housing Federation iNBiz Awards, it won the Best Leadership and the Employer of Choice categories - achievements which clearly place the company as a quality organisation. It also received Gold RoSPA award for Health & Safety and West Yorkshire NHS Modernisation Award for Healthy Living campaign amongst its staff. Pennine Housing being a well known housing company has its duties and responsibilities cut out. It has to provide all the facilities to its tenants as well as the society. It has the responsibility to see that their tenants are not the victims of social exclusion as there may be people of different communities and nationalities. It has to protect the rights and interest of every individual, so that he/she may not get deprived of the facilities to which he/she may be entitled. The company has also tackle issues like labeling where such acts turn an innocent, known to be good guy to some criminal. Such acts/ issues should be addressed and tackled with effective measures for the welfare of the society. And it is the responsibility of Pennine Housing 2000 to look after the buildings and have a vigilante look at all corners of the edifice and see that the repairs are done wherever necessary so that the locality does not turn into a prostitute's hub or crime yard. The company should take effective policing measures to tackle all such issues in the wake of providing decent and good

World War One Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

World War One - Research Paper Example For over twenty years, many nations in Europe had been developing alliances. The alliances were assumed to promote peace. This is because states believed that they would defend each nation in case war arose. The dangerous thing about the alliances was that a conflict between two nations would lead to all other nations joining in the war. Therefore, when a dispute arose between Austria-Hungary and Serbia it resulted to world war one1. The war originated in Balkans, a place famously known for a number of small wars. The murder of Archduke Francis Ferdinand the successor of the Austria-Hungary throne, who thought that his mercy for the Slavs would reduce the anxiety between Austria-Hungary and Balkans. The archduke and his wife had planned to visit Bosnia, as they travelled through Sarajevo on June 28 of the year 19142. An Asian better known as Gavrillo Principe jumped onto the car that carried the heir and his wife and shot them. The Archduke and his wife died instantly. The assassin w as said to be a student related with a Slav nationalist terror group famously known as block hand, which was fighting for freedom from the Austro-Hungarian Empire for the Slavic minorities. From the start, the Austrians alleged that Serbia, an independent and fundamentally pan-Slavic state bordering the Austro-Hungarian Empire was accountable for the assassination. This later was proven to be true because the Serbian chief of staff had assisted in planning the assassination3. Preliminary worldview believed that Serbia was accountable for the assassination, and the early world reaction denounced the act. This factor gave Austria a valid reason for payback. However, the Austro-Hungarian dual monarchy operated on a slow pace. This is because Austria could not do anything without being certain of German support. After getting Germany promise to support them in any action they embarked against Serbia, they sent a list of degrading needs on July 23. Serbia obliged to most of the demands a nd promised to settle the rest through an international conference. Nevertheless, Austria-Hungary refused the offer and proclaimed war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. Austria-Hungary thought the war would result to a quick victory4. Outstanding among the war origination were the imperialist, terrorist and economic battles of great powers. For instance, Germany as an empire advocated to develop itself as the greatest power on the continent. The Germans were also determined to challenge Britain on the subject of superiority. Therefore, the conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia paved way for nations like Germany to show their power and might5. Thus, when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, other declarations followed suit. Nations controlled by other states started developing feelings of nationalism. Nations grouped together in rival military coalitions to fulfill their objectives. They fought to achieve colonies and land. In the end, a number of governments clouded international friendships by undertaking secret diplomacy. Many countries were involved in the war; however, countries joined the war in different periods. The war consisted of three sides where nations could join. One choice was â€Å"the central powers, which consisted of Germany and Austria-Hungary† who were later joined by Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire who initially were neutral before joining the central powers. The allies consisted of Ireland, Great Britain, France, Belgium, Russia, Montenegro and Serbia. Portugal, Italy, Greece and Romania later joined the allies. The â€Å"neutral nations consisted Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Netherlands, Switzerland, Albania and Spain†6. The western front Immediately after Austria-Hungary d

College Saving Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

College Saving Plan - Essay Example As the paper highlights, it is assumed that Wally who is 17 years old will join college at 18 years and this means that he only have one year to join college. He will also attend college for four years and full time basis. Since there are only four years, the parent will pay 100% of all the projected college costs and wish to meet all the savings goals by the time he completes the studies. The parents will make a monthly contribution towards their son’s college savings. The cost of college education is expected to increase by 3% annual which is the inflation rate. The couple also expects to earn a 9.65% after tax every year in the college saving fund. The current college cost is $25,000 per year. Based on this analysis, 100% of the total college cost will be $107,728which then means a monthly contribution of $2,122. The couple wished to save for the college education of the two children. In this case, 529 plans can be used for the two children. The only difference between the saving for the two children is that the saving for Wally will start only a year to joining college while that of Theodore will start 14 years before he joins college-assuming that the two children will join college at the age of 18. The parents will also have to contribute less in terms of monthly pay for Theodore than for Wally. Based on the above assumptions, 100% of the total college costs for Theodore will be $158, 203 leading to a monthly contribution of $354 aimed at meeting this cost. Since Harvard and UMass-Boston are both based in Massachusetts State, the best 529 plan would be U.Fund College Investing Plan. Â  This saving plan is managed by Fidelity and offers five different individual fund portfolios to choose from with each portfolio corresponding to the age of the beneficiary. It does not require any state residency. With this plan which is based in Massachusetts State, then it means that the savings for the college of the two children will well placed as the finances will be paid to their colleges.

Geology Coursework 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Geology Coursework 1 - Essay Example The most attractive landscape feature found in Los Angeles is the parking lot (cited in Ben-Joseph, 2012). Geographic data indicate that parking lots cover roughly one third of the land area in Los Angeles. Mainly built structures form the landscapes of Los Angeles. It is also found that certain types of rocks including igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks are some influencing elements of landscapes in Southern California. Natural changes to these rocks significantly influence the structure of the region’s landscapes. References Ben-Joseph, E. (2012). When a parking lot is so much more. The New York Times: The Opinion Pages. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/26/opinion/when-a-parking-lot-is-so-much-more.html?_r=1 Forman, Godron & Bertrand. (2003). Landscape ecology: Definition of a multidisciplinary approach. In. F. Burel & J. Baudry (Eds), Landscape Ecology: Concepts, Methods, and Applications. USA: Science Publishers. 4. Plate boundary can be s imply referred to a point where two or more plates meet. A plate boundary has altered the land in New Zealand. The plate boundary between Pacific and Australian Plates separates New Zealand territory (What on Earth, 2012). As per reports, throughout South Island, it is observed that both Pacific Plate and Australian Plate slide pass each other and this movement leads to a â€Å"slight obduction of the Pacific Plate over the Australian Plate† (Real Integrity Mall, 2012). Consequently, this sliding process resulted in the formation of Alpine Fault and Southern Alps. Similarly, in the Fiordland south region, the sliding process causes the subduction of the Australian Plate under the Pacific Plate and thereby the formation of Puysegur Trench (Real Integrity Mall, 2012). The plate boundary location has changed over time. It seems that such movements cause changes to earth’s geological structure and ultimately alter land in which the plate boundary is located. References Rea l Integrity Mall. (2012). Geology of New Zealand. Retrieved from http://mall-uk.realint.com/keyword/Geology+of+New+Zealand What on Earth. (2012). Plate tectonics, spreading ridges, triple junctions. Australian Plate. Retrieved from http://whatonearth.olehnielsen.dk/plates/australian.asp 5. Headland is a hard feature. As Nordstrom (2000) describes, a headland can be simply defined as a land point with higher altitude and extended shape into a body of water. Headlands are comprised of harder and highly resistant rock and inlets; and generally headlands are formed as a result of sea attacks on coast comprising of alternating bands of soft and hard rock (p. 108). Ultimately, this hard feature is shaped by erosion. Cape Canaveral situated in Florida is a well known example of headland. Cliff is a soft feature. As Jackman and Wren (2000) define, a cliff is simply a rough vertical rock exposure; and erosion and weathering processes lead to the formation of cliffs. Studies reveal that cliff s are structured as erosions landforms, due to rocks that are highly resistant to the processes of erosion and weathering. Sedimentary and igneous rocks are more likely to form features such as cliffs. Royal Gorge cliffs located in Colorado is an example of cliff. Reference Jackman, J & Wren, W. (2000). Developing Non-Fiction Skills. UK: Nelson Thornes. Nordstrom, K. F. (2000). Beaches and Dunes of Developed Coasts. USA: Cambridge University Press. 6. Generally, hot air

Life of William Wordsworth Essay Example for Free

Life of William Wordsworth Essay William Wordsworth is considered one of the greatest poets during the English Romantic Period. He is also considered, only next to Shakespeare, one of the greatest sonneteers. There are some historians that even believe that William Wordsworth, along with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped launch the Romantic Period. This statement has been debated between historians, but one thing that they do agree on is, William Wordsworth shaped the literary era. The Romantic Period was a time that allowed artistic freedom. The early 60s is the closest period of time that can be related to this time in history. The creativity and experimentation of artists, poets, and ordinary people was beginning to bloom. That was a period of great change. The Classical Period was more controlling. There were strict laws of the Classical Period slowly began to change as Romanticism moved away from such control. The Romantic Period was also a movement of literary and intellectual thinking. Romanticism emphasized on imagination, freedom of feelings, and was mostly connected within the visual arts, music, and literature. Imagination was more important than logic. This period is mostly associated with the arts and poets like William Wordsworth. William Wordsworth, the most significant poet of the English Romantic Period, was greatly influenced as a writer by his childhood, love of nature, and his many relationships. According to Judith W. Page, William Wordsworth was the central poet of his age (Gale 1). William Wordsworths poetry was drawn from his amazing memory, and was mostly based on Nature, people he watched, and personal experiences. Leslie Brisman said of Wordsworth, To call William Wordsworth a Memory Poet is to note how he substitutes personal memories for other assurances of continuity, natural or divine. (276-277). Because each encounter partly transmits and partly reformulates a myth of origins, William Wordsworths work seems easy to read, when in fact, he may be the most difficult of the English Poets (278). Many of his poems were based on his own life and his interpretation of it. The memories and encounters that William Wordsworth drew from, started when he was just a small boy. William Wordsworth was born at Cockermouth, Cumberland on April 7, 1770. He was the second of five children. His father was an attorney which allowed them to live a generous life style. At home is where he learned to appreciate poetry. It was his father that gave him the gift of memory, by requiring Wordsworth to memorize poems or parts of poems, it help developed his powerful memory. Relying on his memory became the very basis of his art (Anderson 9). Growing up in the Lake District is where Wordsworth gained his early appreciation for the beauty of nature. The river that he would play in at the age of five, also had influenced his writing (Gale 2). He loved the countryside and the freedom he had to roam for long periods of time. During this time, his imagination began to bloom. Although he enjoyed periods of solitude, he was adventurous, imaginative, and strong-minded (Aubrey 2). To all accounts, he had the perfect childhood till his mother passed away in March of 1778. He and his brothers were sent to a school at Hawkshead and his sister, Dorothy, was sent to live at Halifax. During his time at school, he only returned home for the holidays. He was well educated and prospered. When his father passed away he and his brothers spent the holidays with family who would patronized them and made them feel dependent (Watson 1577-1578). It was back at school at Hawkshead where he was cared for and his direction for poetry is nurtured by William Taylor, the Headmaster at Hawkshead Grammar School. The classes at Hawkshead were well ahead of other school and were unusual for that time (Purkis 22). According to F. R. Watson, The Prelude early years is about his childhood at Hawkshead and not Penrith (1577). Geoffrey Hartman writes that nature for William Wordsworth was not an object but a presence and a power; a motion and a spirit; not something to be worshiped and consumed, but always a guide leading beyond itself. Till 1804 Wordsworth thought that nature was guiding him. It was in 1804, that he discovers it was his imagination guiding him through nature. His imagination was his guide. This realization shakes him, but does not change his point of view (85-90). William Wordsworth love for nature started at an early age. Thomas Gale writes about Russell Noyes, who in his book William Wordsworth, recounted how Wordsworth credited the river with having influenced his poetic writing: The sound of running water, he often felt, was almost part of his own being (Gale 2). During his college years, he disliked his classes and felt he did not fit in. He wrote in the The Prelude that he believed that he was not for that hour,/nor for that place. (Aubrey 2). Although he did write the poem several poems while at school, one of the more famous one is An Evening Walk, which was meant for his sister, Dorothy. The year before graduation he went for a yearlong walking tour of France, the Alps, and Italy. Several of Wordsworths poems were created from this year long walk. His love of nature was magnified as he viewed glorious mountains, valleys, and other various landscapes. The walk through the Alps inspired Descriptive Sketches. Wordsworth stated . Nothing that I ever saw in nature left a more delightful impression on my mind than that which I have attempted, alas! how feebly, to convey to others in these lines (George 10). The walking tour also gave way to the sixth book of The Prelude. The tour gave him some of his greater imaginative experiences of his life. Michelle Lee writes how Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey, were composed on a walking tour of the Wye River. He advocates the power of Nature. (245) He returned to college and graduated in 1791, without honors. After graduation, he climbed Mount Snowdon, the highest peak in Great Britain. This was an important event that he later incorporates in the final book of The Prelude, giving it a great symbolic importance (Aubrey 2). After climbing Mt. Snowdon, William Wordsworth returned to France in November of 1792. During this time, the French Revolution was at its peak. This was also the time when he met and befriended Republican soldier, Michael Beaupuy. With the growing friendship between the two men, Wordsworth enthusiastically embraced the revolutionary cause. This was also the time when he had an affair with Annette Vallon, who later gave birth to his daughter. These were times that began to change and shape Wordsworth and his poetry. In 1795 he meets William Godwin and is influenced by his ideas. This is also the year that he is reunited with his sister Dorothy, with whom he is very close to. The relationship between brother and sister is also cause for several of his poems. Two years later the encounter that changes the Romantic Period, according to some historians, occurs when Wordsworth meets Coleridge for the first time. William and his sister, settled at Al Foxden in Somerset to be near Coleridge. Margaret Drabble writes that this was a period of intense creativity for both poets. This period produced the Lyrical Ballads, which was a landmark in the history of English Romanticism. The three friends, William, Dorothy, and Coleridge traveled and explored. They made new friendships notably with Sir W. Scott, Sir G Beaumont, and De Quincey (1085). These were happy times and times when he was taken mental notes that would soon turn into poetry. It was the death of his brother in 1805 that changed his joy to sadness. The death of his brother inspired several poems including Elegiac Stanzas Suggested by a Picture of Peele Castle. With the passing of his brother, William suddenly becomes opposed to Romance and Realism (Hartman 91). His brothers death was not the only death to inspire some of his greater works. The death of two of his children inspired his sonnet Surprised by Joy (Drabble 1085). William Wordsworth died in April 23, 1850. It was after his death, his sister published The Prelude, his greatest work. His life, from start to finish, is expressed in this great piece of literature. Throughout William Wordsworth life, he went through many changes. He married his long time family friend, Marry Hutchinson and had a family. His view on religion changed, along with his thoughts on the political society. William Wordsworths poems are all created from the memories of his life experiences and the visions of his travels. Through many friendships and emotional relationships, Wordsworth created some of the greatest poems of the Romantic Period. He was an influence on great poets such as; Samuel Coleridge, Lord Byron, Percy Shelley, and John Keats. There is still a question of whether or not William Wordsworth launched the Romantic Period, but there is no doubt that he shaped the literary work of that time. William Wordsworth, who was greatly influenced as a writer by his childhood, love of nature, and his many relationships, is by far the most significant poet of the English Romantic Period.

Tourism: Vital To The Caribbean Region

Tourism: Vital To The Caribbean Region The impact of tourism on the physical environment has both negatively and positively affected the natural resources of Caribbean countries. Over the years more people are engaging in eco-tourism which forces the people of a county to preserve its wild life, flora and fauna, which are seen as tourism assets. When fees are charge to visit the preserved tourism assets of a country it assists to generate funds to aid in maintenance and protection of the tourism assets. Therefore tourist interest in ecotourism can be sustained for the country. Negatively, the tourists can have a destructive effect on a countrys ecological system. The Caribbean has coral reefs which are infamous for containing rare species of animal life. By tourist engaging in the water activities such as diving and snorkelling, they are directly affecting the endangered species which will seek to migrate when there habitat is being invaded. The endangered species may also die. In addition engaging in water sports will ca use physical damage to the coral reef which will destroy it. Economically tourism has significantly played a major role in the development of many Caribbean countries. Due to tourism, of jobs have an abundance been created in the Caribbean directly and indirectly. According to (World Travel and Tourism Council, 2012) In 2011 Travel and Tourism accounted for 614,000 jobs in the Caribbean directly from the Travel and tourism industry, this figure is expected to increase by 1.7% in 2012. The creation of jobs provides an income and the multiplier effect comes into play whereas those persons who are directly employed to the tourism industry will eventually spend their income for it to circulate in the countrys economy until it is leaked. The leakage concept states that money generated by one country is lost to another. Leakage occurs in Caribbean tourism in many forms, one of which includes chain hotels owned by foreign investors sending back profits to their home countries so the majority of the income does not remain in the Caribbean. Caribbean c ounties heavily depend on tourism for economic viability; this can be change within a day with natural disasters such as earthquakes, hurricanes which can destroy roads, airports, hotels, because tourism is the main source of income for some Caribbean countries this would leave them helpless. Tourism encourages the public and private sectors of a country to build and improve tourism infrastructures (roads, hotels, airports etc.), leisure amenities (gyms, clubs, etc.). By doing this the local people benefits since they are able to use it for themselves even though it was intend for the tourist. Tourism inspires the local people to preserve their traditional customs, festivals, and cuisines since tourists are interested in culture. The culture of the Caribbean are often times sold by the local community members especially areas where the tourist resorts are found. This helps the community members to generate an income for themselves and their families, from which the government can increase tax revenues for the country. Though community tourist benefits the locals there are still negative impacts associated with community tourism. This includes, invasion of privacy by foreigners, drugs can be brought into the community or sold to tourist there which shows the country in a n egative light. The morals and values of local people can be lost through adaption of the foreigners culture. The relationship of tourism to the economy of Caribbean countries can be described as developing. The Caribbean is seen as the most tourism dependent region in the world, with the tourism sector contributing to 36% of the GDP (Caribbean Region: Tourism, n.d.). There are over 900,000 persons directly and indirectly employed to tourism industry according to the (Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO), 2002). This figure contributes significantly to the growth of the GDP since employment will help to increase the standard of living for individuals. With tourism industry thriving for Caribbean countries others sectors that are linked to the tourism industry can benefit from the productivity such as the agriculture sector. There are however some challenges that the Caribbean tourism sector is facing. The tourism sectors of the Caribbean need to be more competitive in order to stay on top since more countries are turning to tourism as a feasible option to boosts their economy. Tourism is a c apital intensive activity which Caribbean countries rely heavily on, therefore it is essential to consider these keys variable of tourism as it relates to the Caribbean economies: the impact on GDP, Inter-sectoral impacts, balance of payments, Investment, Government revenue. Referances http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/02/ Rita kennedy no date http://traveltips.usatoday.com/positive-negative-effects-tourism-63336.html

Impact of Technology on Teaching

Impact of Technology on Teaching Our students live in an era known as the Digital Age. More information is accessible to all people in our society, and more industries are seeking employees who are proficient in information literacy combined with highly-developed technological skills. Therefore, technology is key in helping students use learning throughout their lives. As an IT educator at my middle school, I know that my students are part of a tech-savvy generation who demand 21st century classrooms that prepare them for modern-day realities and future employment. If technology is now considered a teaching and learning approach, what are its attributes? In this paper, I will describe various characteristics of technology as a teaching and learning approach, circumstances where technology in the classroom is thought to be most effective, and specific examples of the efficacy of technology. I believe there are three unique characteristics of technology as an approach to teaching and learning. First, as technology becomes more available, teaching and learning become more flexible and tailored to student needs. For instance, with the use of some types of technology, such as the internet, hand-held devices, and online classrooms, teaching and learning can extend beyond traditional classroom walls and campuses. Hardcopy textbooks become relics of the past, as inexpensive, up-to-date, and interactive e-books are adopted by more and more institutions. With hand-held computing devices, students are no longer reliant on a single computer lab in the school. Students now have the means to conduct online research and master technology skills that they will need in their future careers. For instance, as soon as tasks are assigned by teachers, students can begin working at any time in and out of class. This bodes well for blended learning and e-learning approaches to education. Thes e are just a few examples of how teaching and learning takes place not only within the classroom but also outside the classroom too. Technology further affects teaching and learning because it changes student and teacher roles so that teachers can offer more personalized learning. As Bitner and Bitner (2002) note, the traditional role of teacher has been radically altered with the advent of technology as a teaching and learning tool: [Technologys] use can allow teachers and students to become partners in the learning process. Technology integration necessarily alters the traditional paradigm of the teacher providing wisdom and the student absorbing knowledge and for good reason. The knowledge needed for tomorrows jobs will change before many of todays students enter the job market (p. 97). Rather than acting as expert lecturers who provide knowledge, teachers in todays technological age play the role of facilitators who help students to think critically and learn actively. In this new relationship, students are much more engaged because lessons can be more customized and enhanced to fit each students learning styl e and progress. As more and more teachers are using adaptive learning software, gaming, coding and virtual reality in their classrooms, students can work and excel at their own level and pace. Students are active learners and authors, not just consumers when using technology: Students today must learn to search and discover knowledge, actively communicate with others, and solve problems so that they can become productive life-long members of our society (Bitner and Bitner, 2002, p. 97). Technology makes that happen by asking them to publish, share, and collaborate. A third unique feature of technology as a teaching and learning approach is its ability to transform classrooms into highly collaborative spaces, where learning happens both in and out of classrooms. Technology facilitates interaction amongst students so that they can share questions and information while participating in relevant, real-world tasks prepared under the guidance of the teacher. As a result, technology changes teacher practices because the classroom is more student-centered. Students roles change too from passive listener to collaborator and occasional expert. Furthermore, as tasks become more collaborative, they also become more complex, and students develop various transferable skills: Technology-based projects often require students to undertake a larger workload that can also be different in nature-completing open-ended tasks, collaborating with others, directing their own learning, and assuming new leadership roles to name a few (Groff and Mouza, 2008, p. 33). In te chnology-rich classrooms, students are more likely to be engaged in specialized group projects rather than whole class activities. People rarely work alone to accomplish important tasks in the world of work; technology is allowing schools to better reflect the collaborative nature of todays workplaces and perhaps better equip students with the skills they will need. I believe it is the skill and attitude of the teacher that determines the effectiveness of technology integration in the classroom. When the teacher is confident with technology, employing technology daily in the classroom using a variety of tools to co-create lessons, assignments and projects that show a deep understanding of content, the effectiveness of technology integration is present in the classroom: To be successful teaching with technology requires teachers to have a strong comfort level with, and consistently implement technology tools as part of their own repertoire of tools in courses they are teaching (Keengwe et al., 2008, p. 561). Teachers who are most successful at technology integration in the classroom are those who are so comfortable with technology that they intuitively know when to use and how to use it for student teaching and learning. When teachers are excited about and fully invested in employing technology, optimal teaching and learning environments are created. For instance, Darvasi (2014) recounts the story of a seventh-grade English teacher who used alternate reality games (ARGs) to transform his students study of The Odyssey. Using their teachers game-based version of The Odyssey, students had to follow QR codes and clues to re-assemble lost journals and make their way to the end of the game, often working together in groups to decipher hints in a variety of unexpected ways. Within this example, Darvasi (2014) argues that ARGs became an immersive learning system that combine[d] rich narrative, digital technology, and real-world game play, which allowed students to exercise critical thinking, resilience, and creative problem solving to succeed in the ARG (p. 1). While creating an ARG might seem implausible to many teachers, Darvasi believes that it is an achievable strategy, as it can be created via free user -friendly, web-based tools and digital software. A second example of the efficacy of technology in the classroom is a personal one based on my seven-year experience as the IT teacher at my middle school. My class is completely online and paperless, based in a wiki website where students log in to access lesson plans, assignments and resources, as well as chat in real time with each other or with me. Using a variety of web 2.0 tools on my wiki, and mind-mapping, VOKI, and comic software (to name a few), students are challenged to develop problem-solving skills to both navigate the interface and software as well as work collaboratively on open-ended assignments. In my experience, the presence of the online environment motivates students to learn, perhaps mostly because the technology eliminates a one-size-fits-all approach to learning and customizes content to meet individual needs and learning styles. Todays students cannot effectively be taught with pen and paper only. These dated technologies, while perhaps perfectly acceptable several decades ago, do not reflect the realities or needs of 21st century learners. As a teaching and learning tool, technology modernizes classrooms, transforming them into spaces that better reflect the day-to-day lives of todays learners and the skills they need to build for tomorrow. Just as we would never think of asking a student today to write a paper on a stone tablet, so too can we not ignore the necessity of various technological tools in making learning relevant and engaging for todays learners. References Bitner, N., Bitner, J. (2002). Integrating technology into the classroom: Eight keys to success. Journal  of technology and teacher education, 10(1), 95-100. Characteristics of Highly Effective Technology Teaching and Learning in Kentucky Schools.2009.  Retrieved from the web site:  http://education.ky.gov/curriculum/standards/teachtools/Documents/TechCharacteristicsARCCKDEPJK.pdf Darvasi, P. 2014. How to Transform the Odyssey into an Epic Game in Alternate Reality. Retrieved  from the web site: https://ww2.kqed.org/mindshift/2014/10/13/how-students-can-channel-the-odyssey-into-an-alternate-reality-epic/ Goddard, M. (2002). What do we do with these computers? Reflections on technology in the  classroom. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 35(1), 19-26. Gorder, L. M. (2008). A study of teacher perceptions of instructional technology integration in the  classroom. The Journal of Research in Business Education, 50(2), 63. Groff, J., Mouza, C. (2008). A framework for addressing challenges to classroom technology  use. AACe Journal, 16(1), 21-46. Keengwe, J., Onchwari, G., Wachira, P. (2008). Computer technology integration and student learning:  Barriers and promise. Journal of science education and technology, 17(6), 560-565. Venezky, R. L. (2004). Technology in the classroom: steps toward a new vision. Education,  Communication Information, 4(1), 3-21.

Communication Barriers Essay example -- Manager Leader Communication

A truly successful leader not only has to master the necessary business skills, the technology that makes a business efficient, but the greatest tool for success is the art of communication, so you can share your ideas and they are understood and carried out using every communication tool available. A common denominator among managers that fail in business and life is as a result of failing to overcome barriers to communication, these are often as a result of a lack of proper communication skills, prejudice, lack of information, a loss of touch, cultural and language differences. â€Å"A national survey conducted by the U.S. Labor Department concluded that 20 percent of all U.S. managers lack effective communication skills† (Gordon, 2000, p. 158). â€Å"Leaders take communications seriously. Many leadership scholars advocate speech lessons and presentations skills for those desiring to share vital messages of vision and purpose to those within their influence. Yet for all the writing and talking, speech classes and seminars on presentation skills, it is astonishing to realize that a mere 7-10% of our normal day is verbal† (Nidert, 1999, pp. 153-154). Why is it then that we spend all of our time preparing for spoken conversations and no time learning how our nonverbal communications effect how our message is heard, seldom do we consider how our body language affects that message. â€Å"Inconsistency between language and action will cancel out what is said, no matter what is said, no matter how often, loudly, eloquently or clearly spoken. If your speech does not match your behavior, those within your sphere of influence will, over time, begin to discount what you say in favor of what you didn’t say† (Nidert, 1999, p. 155). â€Å"As we fo... ...A common denominator among managers that fail in business and life is as a result of failing to overcome barriers to communication. Works Cited de Janasz, S. C., Dowd, K. O., & Schnieder, B. Z. (2009). Interpersonal Skills in Oragnization. New York: McGraw-Hill/ Irwin . Dotlich, D. C. (1998). Synergy: Why Links Between Business Units so Often Fail and How to Make Them Work. Oxford: Capstone Publishing Ltd. Gordon, E. E. (2000). Skill Wars: Winning the Battle for Productivity and Profit. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann. Jones, T. E. (1999). If It's Broken, You Can Fic It: Overcoming Dysfuction In the Workplace. New York : AMACOM. Nidert, D. (1999). The Four Seasons of Leadership. Provo: Utah executive Excellence. Osblad, J. S., Turner, M. E., Kolb, D. A., & M., R. I. (2007). The Organization Behavior Reader. Upper saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall. Communication Barriers Essay example -- Manager Leader Communication A truly successful leader not only has to master the necessary business skills, the technology that makes a business efficient, but the greatest tool for success is the art of communication, so you can share your ideas and they are understood and carried out using every communication tool available. A common denominator among managers that fail in business and life is as a result of failing to overcome barriers to communication, these are often as a result of a lack of proper communication skills, prejudice, lack of information, a loss of touch, cultural and language differences. â€Å"A national survey conducted by the U.S. Labor Department concluded that 20 percent of all U.S. managers lack effective communication skills† (Gordon, 2000, p. 158). â€Å"Leaders take communications seriously. Many leadership scholars advocate speech lessons and presentations skills for those desiring to share vital messages of vision and purpose to those within their influence. Yet for all the writing and talking, speech classes and seminars on presentation skills, it is astonishing to realize that a mere 7-10% of our normal day is verbal† (Nidert, 1999, pp. 153-154). Why is it then that we spend all of our time preparing for spoken conversations and no time learning how our nonverbal communications effect how our message is heard, seldom do we consider how our body language affects that message. â€Å"Inconsistency between language and action will cancel out what is said, no matter what is said, no matter how often, loudly, eloquently or clearly spoken. If your speech does not match your behavior, those within your sphere of influence will, over time, begin to discount what you say in favor of what you didn’t say† (Nidert, 1999, p. 155). â€Å"As we fo... ...A common denominator among managers that fail in business and life is as a result of failing to overcome barriers to communication. Works Cited de Janasz, S. C., Dowd, K. O., & Schnieder, B. Z. (2009). Interpersonal Skills in Oragnization. New York: McGraw-Hill/ Irwin . Dotlich, D. C. (1998). Synergy: Why Links Between Business Units so Often Fail and How to Make Them Work. Oxford: Capstone Publishing Ltd. Gordon, E. E. (2000). Skill Wars: Winning the Battle for Productivity and Profit. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann. Jones, T. E. (1999). If It's Broken, You Can Fic It: Overcoming Dysfuction In the Workplace. New York : AMACOM. Nidert, D. (1999). The Four Seasons of Leadership. Provo: Utah executive Excellence. Osblad, J. S., Turner, M. E., Kolb, D. A., & M., R. I. (2007). The Organization Behavior Reader. Upper saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall.

The Effect of Politics and Race on Identity of Puerto Ricans Essay

The Effect of Politics and Race on Identity of Puerto Ricans As is present in many articles we read about Spanish rule and American rule, there were always references to race, and the mix of races that the Puerto Ricans are, and how that has affected their identity. Kristen Moran hypothesized as to what was the origin of Spaniard's need to assert their clean lineage: "The attitude of the Spaniards concerning pure lineage, which can be traced back to the Muslim occupation of Spain, further complicated race interaction in Puerto Rico." The Ferrà © novel begins with Buenaventura's arrival to Puerto Rico from Spain, who is a member of a bourgeoisie family. Immediately there are references to the importance of a â€Å"clean lineage† and books which tracked marriages to make sure that families were remaining true to their roots. Families wanted to assert that there was no â€Å"bad blood† running through the family when another bourgeoisie family is ready to marry off their son or daughter. David Bernstein expands on this idea by writ ing that, "Buenaventura preaches his racial superiority and separation from others to his children, in the hope that this will ensure the 'purity' of future generation's white blood." This is why early on the citation by Gonzà ¡lez of â€Å"returning to Spanish era† as â€Å"returning to a society in which the white and property-owning part of the population has always oppressed and despised the non-white and non-property-owning part.†(Gonzà ¡lez, p4) was utilized in the conclusion of my first paper on early Spanish rule and has not left the schema I have created in my mind of how each set of rulers viewed Puerto Ricans. Ferrà © touches on an area that I had not connected myself, nor had read anywhere yet. This realization that... ...n the Twentieth Century. 2nd.ed. (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1996). Ferrà ©, Rosario. The House on the Lagoon (NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1995). Gonzà ¡lez, Josà © Luis, â€Å"Puerto Rico: The Four-Storeyed Country,† from Puerto Rico: The Four-Storeyed Country and other essays (Princeton and NY: Markus Wiener Publishing, Inc.), 1-30. Moran, Kristen. Home page- H378. http://frontpage.trincoll.edu/kmoran2/project.htm Morris, Nancy. Puerto Rico: Culture, Politics, and Identity (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1995). Pearson, Stacie. Home page. 10 December 1998. <http://frontpage.trincoll.edu/spearson/puerto2.htm>. Puerto Rico Herald Vol. 2 No. 25. <www.puertorico-herald.org> Rivera, Fabian. Home page-H378. http://frontpage.trincoll.edu/frivera/newpage3.htm Rodriguez, Richard. Home page- H378 http://frontpage.trincoll.edu/rrodrigu/h378p.htm

Public Education in the Philippines Essay

Literacy rate in the Philippines has improved a lot over the last few years- from 72 percent in 1960 to 94 percent in 1990. This is attributed to the increase in both the number of schools built and the level of enrollment in these schools. The number of schools grew rapidly in all three levels – elementary, secondary, and tertiary. From the mid-1960s up to the early 1990, there was an increase of 58 percent in the elementary schools and 362 percent in the tertiary schools. For the same period, enrollment in all three levels also rose by 120 percent. More than 90 percent of the elementary schools and 60 percent of the secondary schools are publicly owned. However, only 28 percent of the tertiary schools are publicly owned. A big percentage of tertiary-level students enroll in and finish commerce and business management courses. Table 1 shows the distribution of courses taken, based on School Year 1990-1991. Note that the difference between the number of enrollees in the commerce and business courses and in the engineering and technology courses may be small – 29. 2 percent for commerce and business and 20. 3 percent for engineering and technology. However, the gap widens in terms of the number of graduates for the said courses. TABLE 1: TERTIARY ENROLLMENT AND GRADUATION BY FIELD OF STUDY. SY 1990-1991 FIELD OF STUDY ENROLLMENT GRADUATION No. % No. % Arts and Sciences 196,711 14. 6 29,961 13. 6 Teacher Training & Education 242,828 18. 0 34,279 15. 5 Engineering & Technology 273,408 20. 3 32,402 14. 7 Medical and Health – related Programs 176,252 13. 1 34,868 15. 8 Commerce/Business Management 392,958 29. 2 79,827 36. 1 Agriculture, Forestry, Fishery, and Veterinary Medicine 43,458 3. 2 7,390 3. 3 Law 20,405 1. 5 2,111 1. 0 Religion / Theology 1,695 0. 1 209 0. 1 TOTAL 1,347,715 100. 0 221,047 100. 0 On gender distribution, female students have very high representation in all three levels. At the elementary level, male and female students are almost equally represented. But female enrollment exceeds that of the male at the secondary and tertiary levels . Also, boys have higher rates of failures, dropouts, and repetition in both elementary and secondary levels. Aside from the numbers presented above, which are impressive, there is also a need to look closely and resolve the following important issues: 1) quality of education 2) affordability of education 3) goverment budget for education; and 4) education mismatch. Quality – There was a decline in the quality of the Philippine education, especially at the elementary and secondary levels. For example, the results of standard tests conducted among elementary and high school students, as well as in the National College of Entrance Examination for college students, were way below the target mean score. Affordability – There is also a big disparity in educational achievements across social groups. For example, the socioeconomically disadvantaged students have higher dropout rates, especially in the elementary level. And most of the freshmen students at the tertiary level come from relatively well-off families. Budget – The Philippine Constitution has mandated the goverment to allocate the highest proportion of its budget to education. However, the Philippines still has one of the lowest budget allocations to education among the ASEAN countries. Mismatch – There is a large proportion of â€Å"mismatch† between training and actual jobs. This is the major problem at the tertiary level and it is also the cause of the existence of a large group of educated unemployed or underemployed. The following are some of the reforms proposed: Upgrade the teachers’ salary scale. Teachers have been underpaid; thus there is very little incentive for most of them to take up advanced trainings. Amend the current system of budgeting for education across regions, which is based on participation rates and units costs. This clearly favors the more developed regions. There is a need to provide more allocation to lagging regions to narrow the disparity across regions. Stop the current practice of subsidizing state universities and colleges to enhance access. This may not be the best way to promote equity. An expanded scholarship program, giving more focus and priority to the poor, maybe more equitable. Get all the leaders in business and industry to become actively involved in higher education; this is aimed at addressing the mismatch problem. In addition, carry out a selective admission policy, i. e. , installing mechanisms to reduce enrollment in oversubscribed courses and promoting enrollment in undersubscribed ones. Develop a rationalized apprenticeship program with heavy inputs from the private sector. Furthermore, transfer the control of technical training to industry groups which are more attuned to the needs of business and industry.

Personalities of The Cold War Essay

Who caused the cold war? Focus; the role of each personality in contributing to the cold warTime frame: 1945 to 1952Cold war- period of intense tension and mistrust, leading to competition and confrontations. Stand: both Stalin and Truman contributed to the cold war. The key personalities that contributed to the cold war are namely Stalin and Truman,both in office in US and USSR respectively. both were responsible as their personalities and level of experiences contributed to their policies made, which heightened tensions and thus caused the cold war. Personality traits like Stalin’s paranoia gave rise to his expansionist policy, which hardline Truman viewed as aggression and tried to counter it in the Truman Doctrine and Marshall plan. Truman’s low level of experience in dealing with Stalin also increased tensions and led to the cold war. Stalin was aggressive and protective of the USSR as he was a true hardline communist and believed that Russia had to stay strongly communist. However, the USSR was invaded thrice in no more than a century and also suffered civil war and intervention from anti-communist forces from 1918 to 1920, when communism as an ideology was at infancy. These anti-communist forces comprised of the West when they helped the Whites during the Bolshevik Revolution. From this, Stalin believed that the West wanted to destroy communism before communism became stronger. His mistrust grew as he became paranoid and thought of the West as a potential security threat this was because This prompted his embarking on salami tactics ( an expansionist policy) so that Communism would remain strong in Eastern Europe. Gradually the Russians began to systematically interfere in the countries in Eastern Europe to set up pro-communist governments, in countries like Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Albania and Romania. Stalin felt that his actions were justified for the defense of communism, and that salami tactics were absolutely necessary. He did not realize that his actions had frightened the West. What he failed to consider was that the west was not interested in destroying communism but was looking more towards post war cooperation. The  west showed this through the decisions made at the post-war conferences when Russia was allowed to take reparations from Germany and it was allowed to benefit from the loans from the west, known as the Lend Lease. His paranoia in embarking on the expansionist policy ( comprising Salami tactics) when juxtaposed with Truman’s hardline views, only served to heighten suspicion and tensions, leading to the Cold war. Similarly, Truman became suspicious of the USSR’s intent towards eastern Europe. He was a hardline president who stood firmly against Communism, and was intolerant of the needs of the USSR . Truman saw Stalin’s actions as a breach of the Declaration of Eastern Europe where Stalin had promised to allow countries like Poland free elections but failed to do so, instead carrying out the reverse and forcing communist governments in these countries through rigged electionsTruman, with his hardline view that communism was bad, viewed Stalin’s moves as being remarkably similar to Hitler’s salami tactics, and that the USSR was embarking on aggression. In addition he felt that if he did not stop Stalin, Stalin would think that Eastern Europe was his for the taking, and capitalism would perish. This in turn led to the formation of the Truman Doctrine and Marshall plan which would serve to increase tensions (elaborated below)Secondly, the Truman Doctrine and the Marsh all Plan. The West formulated the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall plan to contain communism in Greece and Turkey. Communists were trying to overthrow the monarchy but british troops who restored the monarchy in the past were feeling the strain of supporting it against the communists. The british prime minister appealed to the USA and Truman announced that it would † support free peoples who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressure’ and Greece received massive amounts of aid and the communists were defeated. The funds of the Truman doctrine were obtained through Congress where Truman portrayed the situation in Greece and Turkey as part of the global communist threat. Truman’s low level of experience prevented him from realizing that Stalin would see the Truman doctrine as an attempt to subvert them. In other words, he did not deal with stalin before, and did not see that his portrayal was excessively confrontational and would  serve to heighten Stalin’s paranoia and escalate his mistrust towards the West. Similarly, the Marshall plan was formulated to facilitate economic recovery in Eastern Europe. By September, 16 nations had drawn up a joint plan for using American aid and in total over 13000 million dollars of Marshall Aid was given to western European countries. However, the west did not consider the impact that the Marshall plan would have on how the USSR viewed them. Truman’s low level of experience with dealing with the Stalin prevented him from seeing that the Stalin was sensitive about USSR’s economic status (Stalin refused to ratify the the Bretton Woods agreement so that the West would not realize how economically weak the USSR was in 1945. The Bretton woods agreement was a system to acquire international currency stabilization which required foreign access to sensitive economic data. Stalin viewed the policy as ‘dollar imperialism† and as a blatant American device for gaining control of western Europe, and made all Russian states reject the offer. The Truman doctrine and the Marshall plan would eventually prompt Stalin( along with his paranoia) to come up with the Cominform and the Comecon which served to unify all Eastern European satellite states. Truman’s low level of experience in coming up with the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall plan, when juxtaposed with Stalin’s paranoia, fueled further consolidation of power by Stalin, which escalated tensions on both the USA and the USSR and caused the Cold war. Biblography: Richard Crockett, the fifty years war: The United States and the Soviet Union in World Politics, 1945-1991Gaddis, John Lewis. We now know: Rethinking Cold war History. US: Oxford University Press.

Ezra Pound Essay

The Young Genius: Ezra Pound’s influenced poetry on Benito Mussolini and the Fascist movement, time of his stay in St. Elizabeth’s Hospital and the concept of Imagism. â€Å"If a nation’s literature declines, the nation atrophies and decays.† (Ezra Pound Quotes) Ezra Pound was not a man of many words, but he certainly did have a knack for turning simple words into something beautiful. Pounds’ poetry was influenced by his fascination with Benito Mussolini and the Fascist movement, the time of his stay in St. Elizabeth’s Hospital and the concept of Imagism. It is safe to say that Ezra Pound did not live a boring life growing up. He was born on October 30, 1885 in Hailey, Idaho. However, he was brought up in Wyncote, Philadelphia. At the small age of 12, Pound’s father, Hoomer Loomis Pound, sent him to military school. His father’s occupation was an assistant assayer at the U.S. Mint. Pound was the only child from his father, Hoomer Loomis Pound, and his mother, Mary Parker Wadsworth Weston. The family was your average, middle-class family. His mother, was more of a traditional woman. â€Å"A family that has respect for tradition,† were the words that often came out of her mouth. (Ezra (Weston Loomis) Pound Biography) In the year 1905, Pound received a bachelor degree of philosophy from Hamilton College and a master’s degree from University of Pennsylvania in 1906. After he graduated in 1907, his first teaching gig was teaching Spanish and French at a small Presbyterian college in Indiana. He was shortly fired from that occupation, due to the accused charges of seducing a young woman. Pound was never found guilty. One of the main influences in Ezra Pound’s poetry was Benito Mussolini and the Fascism beliefs. The whole interest and fascination began around 1924, when Pound left England and went to Italy with his second wife Olga Rudge. He left England because he believed they were responsible for the usury and international capitalism for the war. â€Å"Mussolini seemed to have clever ideas about economics than Major Douglass did.† (74. Wilhelm, James J.) Pound was so fixated on Mussolini that he eventually met him in Rome at January 30, 1933 in the Palazzo Venezie. (Ezra Pound – Pound, Politics, Poetry) Furthermore, Pound created a name for him in the Fascist world and eventually made a regular address on the Italian State Radio, approved by the Italian government, because he was such an advocate for Benito Mussolini and his fascist views. Because of his incredible favor towards Mussolini, people back in the United States viewed him as a traitor  and were saying he was fraternizing with the enemy. â€Å"If a man isn’t willing to take some risk for his opinions, either his opinions are no good or he’s no good.† (Treason, Fascism, and Anti-Semitism) People thought that Pound went insane and he was arrested for treason and was sent to St. Elizabeth’s Hospital of Mental Health. I believe, that this is an expressive poem about his feelings living in England or the United States. He was so happy in Italy and was living such a â€Å"colorful† life that every other way of life just appeared â€Å"dull† to him. â€Å"And the days are not full enough† And the days are not full enough And the nights are not full enough And life slips by like a field mouse Not shaking the grass. (Pound, Ezra) Ezra Pound In this poem, Ezra Pound used diction, tone, and euphony. Diction shined through in the chosen phrase, â€Å"not full enough†. Although he only used that twice in the poem, that phrase had a very powerful effect on the readers’ mood of the poem. He gave the poem a dull and melancholy vibe for the poem. Although the Pound’s attitude is not directly stated in this poem, the depressing tone is as noticeable as a white elephant in the room. Last but not least is the use of elegy. Despite the part of elegy relating to death, elegy is used in this poem because it is a very solemn themed poem. In my opinion, this â€Å"man† Pound is talking about is intended to be viewed as England or the United States. This â€Å"ideal† man that he speaks of, who has order about him, meant to be viewed as Italy/Benito Mussolini. â€Å"Canto 13† If a man have not order within him He cannot spread order about him; And if a man have not order within him His family will not act with due order; And if the prince have not order within him He cannot put order in his dominions. (Lines 46-51) In the previous excerpt of Canto 13, the three literacy terms refrain; anaphora and a hint of didactic poetry are involved. The word and phrase order appear in every line of the excerpt. It is repeated to not only get the meaning across, but to make a significant indent in the readers’ mind while reading the poem. The hint of didactic poetry is shown in this poem, I believe, because Pound is telling the reader without order you cannot do a few things such as spread order about him, family will not act, and one cannot put order in his dominions. In a way, that is teaching the pros of â€Å"order.† From this poem I can infer that Ezra Pound is stating that whether or not he is ruled by an imperialistic power: everyday is going to be the same, for everybody. The last line â€Å"Imperial power is? And to us what is it?† means that no matter government is enforced, their everyday life is not going to change. â€Å"Cantos XLIX: For The Seven Lakes† Sun up; work Sundown; to rest Dig well and drink of the water Dig field; eat of the grain Imperial power is? And to us what is it? The fourth; the dimension of stillness. And the power over wild beasts. (Lines 42-48) In this excerpt of a free versed poem, the mood is shown to be this sort of â€Å"depressed† or â€Å"given up on life† type of attitude. Also used in this poem are diction and caesura. Caesura is a natural pause in the middle of a line, sometimes coinciding with punctuation (Quizlet). The short and curt choice of words really gives off the frustrated aura of the poem. And caesura shines through with the use of the semi-colons after every first verse in the line of that stanza. The second influence of Ezra Pound’s poetry and writings had to do with his stay in St. Elizabeth’s Hospital. When Pound was arrested and put in St. Elizabeth’s Hospital he was deemed mentally insane after being convicted of treason. While Pound was in the hospital, he wrote most of his poetry. For example, the series of 120 sections of Cantos were written mostly in the hospital. Furthermore, after being analyzed, his poems and writing were said to be from a â€Å"sane persons mind.† ( Not being a very talkative man out of the hospital, his lack of social skills really showed through while in the hospital; he was not a very warm and fuzzy man. While still in St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, Pound was awarded the Bollingen Award by the Library of Congress for his Pisan Cantos (1948). About 10 years later in 1958, his fellow writers and fans released him due to the campaign. I really liked this excerpt of the poem â€Å"Before Sleep† because I feel that it really described how Ezra Pound was feeling in his room at the hospital. He must have had a good amount of time to think and analyze everything going on around him. â€Å"Before Sleep† The lateral vibrations caress me, They leap and caress me, They work pathetically in my favour, They seek my financial good. (Lines 1-4) Obviously from the title of the poem, we can infer that the theme of the poem is about the period of time before one falls asleep. However, any knowledgeable reader can infer that without the title. The imagery used in this poem is absolutely marvelous. When I read the excerpt, I really envision the vibrations becoming one and interacting with the body. That is also an excellent use of personification. Vibrations obviously cannot â€Å"caress† and â€Å"leap† across ones body. In my opinion, Ezra Pound is explaining through the character Kung that being cooped up in the hospital is doing him no good, that he is not himself. â€Å"Without ones’ freedom (character) one cannot get far in life (play on that instrument or execute the music)† (Poems by Ezra Pound) â€Å"Canto 13† And Kung said, â€Å"Without character you will â€Å"Be unable to play on that instrument â€Å"Or to execute the music fit for the Odes. â€Å"The blossoms of the apricot â€Å"Blow from the east to the west, â€Å"And I have tried to keep them from falling.† (Lines 80-85) This excerpt from â€Å"Canto 13† has two hidden literacy terms incorporated in its writing. The terms symbolism and didactic poetry are noticeable and relate to each other. Symbolism is used to symbolize the word â€Å"character† with ones freedom and the phrase â€Å"unable to play on that instrument† is used to symbolize the ability to use and control that freedom. This is where didactic poetry comes into play, having freedom and being able to control it is teaching. The third influence that had a major part in Ezra Pounds’ poetry is Imagism. It is safe to say that Ezra Pounds’ most noted contribution to poetry was the founding and involvement of Imagism. Imagism: a literary movement launched by British and American poets early in the 20th century that advocated the use of free verse, common speech patterns, and clear concrete images as a reaction to Victorian sentimentalism. (Imagism: Definition from Answers.com) â€Å"We believe that the individuality of a poet may often be better expressed in free verse than in conventional forms. In poetry, a new cadence means a new idea.† (Imagists’ Quotes). That quote is derived from Ezra Pound and his fellow poets who had a large effect on the Imagism period. One of the other poets was Amy Lowell. In 1912, Pound founded the Imagist School with T.E. Hulme and F.S. Flint and Helda Doolittle. This poem is one of my favorites because it is so direct and honest. Not only is it honest but also it is so forward and really makes me gain more respect for Ezra Pound. This poem is influenced by Imagism because one of the main topics in Imagism is to advocate the use of free verse and this poem is the epitome of free verse.

The Main Problems of Lexicography

The main problems of lexicography The most burning issues of lexicography are connected with the selection of head-words, the arrangement and contents of the vocabulary entry, the principles of sense definitions and the semantic and functional classification of words. In the first place it is the problem of how far a general descriptive dictionary, whether unilingual or bilingual, should admit the historical element. In fact, the term â€Å"current usage† is disconcertingly elastic, it may, for instance, be stretched to include all words and senses used by W.Shakespeare, as he is commonly read, or include only those of the fossilised words that are kept in some set expressions or familiar quotations, e. g. shuffled off this mortal coil (â€Å"Hamlet†), where coil means ‘turmoil’ (of life). For the purpose of a dictionary, which must not be too bulky, selection between scientific and technical terms is also a very important task. It is a debatable point whet her a unilingual explanatory dictionary should strive to cover all the words of the language, including neologisms, nonce-words, slang, etc. nd note with impartial accuracy all the words actually used by English people; or whether, as the great English lexicographer of the 18th century Samuel Johnson used to think, it should be preceptive, and (viewed from the other side) prohibitive. Dictionary-makers should attempt to improve and stabilise the English vocabulary according to the best classical samples and advise the readers on preferable usage. A distinctly modern criterion in selection of entries is the frequency of the words to be included. This is especially important for certain lines of practical work in preparing graded elementary textbooks.When the problem of selection is settled, there is the question as to which of the selected units have the right to a separate entry and which are to be included under one common head-word. These are, in other words, the questions of sepa rateness and sameness of words. The first deals with syntagmatic boundaries of word-units and has to solve such questions as whether each other is a group of two separate words to be treated separately under the head-words each and other, or whether each other is a unit deserving a special entry (compare also: one another).Need such combinations as boiling point, carbon paper, department store, phone box be sub-entered under their constituents? If so, under which of them? Or, perhaps, it will be more convenient for those who use the dictionary if these were placed as separate main entries consisting of a nominal compound or a phrase. As to the sameness, this deals with paradigmatic boundaries. How many entries are justified for hound'? COD has two — one for the noun, and the other for the verb: ‘to chase (as) with hounds’; the verb and the noun are thus treated as homonyms. Chambers’s Twentieth Century Dictionary† combines them under one head-word, i . e. it takes them as variants of the same word (hence the term â€Å"sameness†). The problem is even more complicated with variants belonging to the same part of speech. This problem is best illustrated by the pun that has already been discussed elsewhere in this book: Mind you, I don’t mind minding the children if the children mind me (Understand, I don’t object to taking care of the children if the children obey me). Here the dictionary-maker is confronted with the problem of sameness.Should mind be considered one word with several semantic variants, and take one entry? Or is it more convenient to represent it as several words? The difference in the number of entries for an equal bulk of vocabulary may also depend on a different approach to the regularly formed derivatives, like those with -er, -ing, -ness, and -ly. These are similar to grammatical endings in their combining possibilities and semantic regularity. The derivation is so regular, and the meaning and class of these derivatives are so easily deduced that they are sometimes sidered not worth an entry.That is why the definition of the scope of a dictionary is not quite as simple as it might appear at first sight. There exist almost unsurmountable difficulties to a neat statistical evaluation. Some publishers state the number of entries in a subtitle, others even claim for the total coverage with the exception of very special terms. It must be remembered, however, that without a generally accepted standard for settling the problems of sameness and separateness no meaningful evaluation of the scope of any particular dictionary is possible.Besides in the case of a living language the vocabulary is not stable, and the attitude of lexicographers to archaisms and neologisms varies. The arrangement of the vocabulary entry presents many problems, of which the most important are the differentiation and the sequence of various meanings of a polysemantic word. A historical dictionary (the Oxford Dictionary, for instance) is primarily concerned with the development of the English vocabulary. It arranges various senses chronologically, first comes the etymology, then the earliest meanings marked by the label obs. — obsolete.The etymologies are either comparative or confined to a single language. The development is documented by illustrative quotations, ranging from the oldest to recent appearances of the word in question. A descriptive dictionary dealing with current usage has to face its own specific problems. It has to apply a structural point of view and give precedence to the most important meanings. But how is the most important meaning determined upon? So far each compiler was guided by his own personal preference. An objective procedure would be to obtain data of statistical counts.But counting the frequency of different meanings of the same word is far more difficult than counting the frequency of its forms. It is therefore not by chance that up to now many counts have been undertaken only for word forms, irrespective of meaning. Also, the interdependence of meanings and their relative importance within the semantic structure of the word do not remain the same. They change almost incessantly, so that the task of establishing their relative frequency would have to be repeated very often. The constant revisions necessary would make the publication of dictionaries very expensive.It may also be argued that an arrangement of meanings according to frequency would sometimes conceal the ties and relationship between various elements of the semantic structure. Nevertheless some semantic counts have been achieved and the lexicographers profited by them. Thus, in preparing high-school English dictionaries the staff under chief editor C. L. Barnhart was aided by semantic counts which Dr E. L. Thorndike had made of current standard literature, from children’s books to â€Å"The Encyclopaedia Britannica†. The count according to C. L. Barnhart was of enormous importance in compiling their dictionaries, but the lexicographer admits that counts are only one of the criteria necessary for selecting meanings and entries, and that more dictionary evidence is needed, namely typical quotations for each meaning. Dictionary evidence normally exists in the form of quotation slips constituting raw material for word treatment and filed under their appropriate head-words. In editing new dictionaries the lexicographers cannot depend only on the scholarly editions such as OED.In order to meet the demands of their readers, they have to sample the reading of the public for whom the dictionary is meant. This textual reference has to be scrupulously examined, so as to account for new words and meanings making their way into the language. Here again some quantitative criteria must be established. If a word or meaning occurs in several different sources over a wide range of magazines and books during a considerable period of time, it may be worth including even into a college dictionary.The preface to â€Å"The Concise Oxford Dictionary†, for instance, states that its authors find that sense development cannot be presented in every word, because obsolete words are as a rule omitted. Only occasionally do they place at the beginning a rare but still current sense, if it can throw light on the more common senses that follow, or forms the connecting link with the etymology. The etymologies are given throughout, but otherwise the compilers do not seem to keep to any consistent principle and are guided by what they think is the order of logical connection, familiarity or importance.E. L. Thorndike formulates the following principles: â€Å"Other things being equal, literal uses come before figurative, general uses before special, common uses before rare, and easily understandable uses before difficult, and to sum up: that arrangement is best for any word which helps the learner most. † A synchronic di ctionary should also show the distribution of every word. It has been traditionally done by labelling words as belonging to a certain part of speech, and by noting some special cases of grammatically or lexically bound meanings.Thus, the word spin is labelled in â€Å"The Concise Oxford Dictionary† as v. t. & i. , which gives a general idea of its distribution; its various senses are shown in connection with words that may serve as subject or object, e. g. : â€Å"2. (of spider, silkworm, etc. ) make (web, gossamer, cocoon, or abs. ) by extrusion of fine viscous thread †¦ 10. spun glass (spun when heated into filaments that remain pliant when cold); spun gold, silver (gold, silver thread prepared for weaving †¦ ). † This technique is gradually being improved upon, and compilers strive to provide more detailed information on these points. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary †¦ † by A. S. Hornby, E. V. Gatenby and H. Wakefield supplies informati on on the syntactical distribution of each verb. In their â€Å"Notes on Syntax† the compilers state that one who is learning English as a foreign language is apt to form sentences by analogy, which at times may lead him into error. For instance, the student must be warned against taking the use of the verb tell in the sentence Please tell me the meaning as a model for the word explain, because *Please, explain me the meaning would be ungrammatical. For his purpose they provide a table of 25 verb patterns and supply the numerical indications in each verb entry. This gives the student the necessary guidance. Indications are also supplied as to which nouns and which semantic varieties of nouns may be used in the plural. This helps the student to avoid mistakes like *interesting informations. Many dictionaries indicate the different stylistic levels to which the words belong: colloquial, technical, poetical, rhetorical, archaic, familiar, vulgar or slang, and their expressive co louring: emphatic, ironical, diminutive, facetious.This is important, because a mere definition does not show these data. There is always a difference in style between the dictionary word and its definition. The word digs is a slang word but its definition ‘lodgings’ is not. Giving these data modern dictionary-makers strive to indicate the nature of the context in which the word may occur. The problem is also relevant for bilingual dictionaries and is carefully presented in the â€Å"New English-Russian Dictionary† edited by I. R. Galperin. A third group of lexicographic problems is the problem of definitions in a unilingual dictionary.The explanation of meaning may be achieved by a group of synonyms which together give a fairly general idea; but one synonym is never sufficient for the purpose, because no absolute synonyms exist. Besides, if synonyms are the only type of explanation used, the reader will be placed in a vicious circle of synonymic references, with not a single word actually explained. Definitions serve the purpose much better. These are of two main types. If they are only concerned with words as speech material, the definition is called linguistic. If they are concerned with things for which the words are names, they are termed encyclopaedic.American dictionaries are for the most part traditionally encyclopaedic, which accounts for so much attention paid to graphic illustration. They furnish their readers with far more information about facts and things than their British counterparts, which are more linguistic and more fundamentally occupied with purely lexical data (as contrasted to r e a 1 i a), with the grammatical properties of words, their components, their stylistic features, etc. Opinions differ upon the optimum proportion of linguistic and encyclopaedic material.Very interesting considerations on this subject are due to Alf Sommerfeldt. He thinks that definitions must be based on the fact that the meanings of words render complex notions which may be analysed (cf. componental analysis) into several elements rendered by other words. He emphasises, for instance, that the word pedestrian is more aptly defined as ‘a person who goes or travels on foot’ than as ‘one who goes or travels on foot’. The remark appears valuable, because a definition of this type shows the lexico-grammatical type to which the word belongs and consequently its distribution.It also helps to reveal the system of the vocabulary. Much too often, however, one sees in dictionaries no attention paid to the difference in distribution between the defined and the defining word. The meaning of the word may be also explained by examples, i. e. contextually. The term and its definition are here fused. For example, diagonal is explained by the following context where only this term can occur: A square has two diagonals, and each of them divides the square into two right-angled isosceles triangles. Very often th is type can be changed into a standard form, i. . A diagonal is one of the two lines †¦ , etc. One more problem is the problem of whether all entries should be defined or whether it is possible to have the so-called â€Å"run-ons† for derivative words in which the root-form is readily recognised (such as absolutely or resolutely). In fact, whereas resolutely may be conveniently given as a -ly run-on after resolute, there is a meaning problem for absolutely. One must take into consideration that in colloquial speech absolutely means ‘quite so’, ‘yes’ which cannot be deduced from the meaning of the corresponding adjective.HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF BRITISH AND AMERICAN LEXICOGRAPHY Although, as we have seen from the preceding paragraph, there is as yet no coherent doctrine in English lexicography, its richness and variety are everywhere admitted and appreciated. Its history is in its way one of the most remarkable developments in linguistics, and i s therefore worthy of special attention. In the following pages a short outline of its various phases is given. A need for a dictionary or glossary has been felt in the cultural growth of many civilised peoples at a fairly early period.The history of dictionary-making for the English language goes as far back as the Old English period where its first traces are found in the form of glosses of religious books with interlinear translation from Latin. Regular bilingual English-Latin dictionaries were already in existence in the 15th century. The unilingual dictionary is a comparatively recent type. The first unilingual English dictionary, explaining words by English equivalents, appeared in 1604. It was meant to explain difficult words occurring in books.Its title was â€Å"A Table Alphabeticall, containing and teaching the true writing and understanding of hard usuall English words borrowed from the Hebrew, Greeke, Latine or French†. The little volume of 120 pages explaining ab out 3000 words was compiled by one Robert Cawdrey, a schoolmaster. Other books followed, each longer than the preceding one. The first attempt at a dictionary including all the words of the language, not only the difficult ones, was made by Nathaniel Bailey who in 1721 published the first edition of his â€Å"Universal Etymological English Dictionary†.He was the first to include pronunciation and etymology. Big explanatory dictionaries were created in France and Italy before they appeared for the English language. Learned academies on the continent had been established to preserve the purity of their respective languages. This was also the purpose of Dr Samuel Johnson’s famous Dictionary published in 1755. 1 The idea of purity involved a tendency to oppose change, and S. Johnson’s Dictionary was meant to establish the English language in its classical form, to preserve it in all its glory as used by J. Dryden, A.Pope, J. Addison and their contemporaries. In conf ormity with the social order of his time, S. Johnson attempted to â€Å"fix† and regulate English. This was the period of much discussion about the necessity of â€Å"purifying† and â€Å"fixing† English, and S. Johnson wrote that every change was undesirable, even a change for the best. When his work was accomplished, however, he had to admit he had been wrong and confessed in his preface that â€Å"no dictionary of a living tongue can ever be perfect, since while it is hastening to publication, some words are budding and some falling away†.The most important innovation of S. Johnson’s Dictionary was the introduction of illustrations of the meanings of the words â€Å"by examples from the best writers†, as had been done before him in the dictionary of the French Academy. Since then such illustrations have become a â€Å"sine qua non† in lexicography; S. Johnson, however, only mentioned the authors and never gave any specific referenc es for his quotations. Most probably he reproduced some of his quotations from memory, not always very exactly, which would have been unthinkable in modern lexicology.The definitions he gave were often very ingenious. He was called â€Å"a skilful definer†, but sometimes he preferred to give way to sarcasm or humour and did not hesitate to be partial in his definitions. The epithet he gave to lexicographer, for instance, is famous even in our time: a lexicographer was ‘a writer of dictionaries, a harmless drudge †¦ ’. The dictionary dealt with separate words only, almost no set expressions were entered. Pronunciation was not marked, because S.Johnson was keenly aware of the wide variety of the English pronunciation and thought it impossible to set up a standard there; he paid attention only to those aspects of vocabulary where he believed he could improve linguistic usage. S. Johnson’s influence was tremendous. He remained the unquestionable authority on style and diction for more than 75 years. The result was a lofty bookish style which received the name of â€Å"Johnsonian† or â€Å"Johnsonese†. As to pronunciation, attention was turned to it somewhat later. A pronouncing dictionary that must be mentioned first was published in 1780 by Thomas Sheridan, grandfather of the great dramatist.In 1791 appeared â€Å"The Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language† by John Walker, an actor. The vogue of this second dictionary was very great, and in later publications Walker’s pronunciations were inserted into S. Johnson’s text — a further step to a unilingual dictionary in its present-day form. The Golden Age of English lexicography began in the last quarter of the 19th century when the English Philological Society started work on compiling what is now known as â€Å"The Oxford English Dictionary† (OED), but was originally named â€Å"New English Dictionary on Historical Principles†.It is still occasionally referred to as NED. The purpose of this monumental work is to trace the development of English words from their form in Old English, and if they were not found in Old English, to show when they were introduced into the language, and also to show the development of each meaning and its historical relation to other meanings of the same word. For words and meanings which have become obsolete the date of the latest occurrence is given. All this is done by means of dated quotations ranging from the oldest to recent appearances of the words in question.The English of G. Chaucer, of the â€Å"Bible† and of W. Shakespeare is given as much attention as that of the most modern authors. The dictionary includes spellings, pronunciations and detailed etymologies. The completion of the work required more than 75 years. The result is a kind of encyclopaedia of language used not only for reference purposes but also as a basis for lexicol ogical research. The lexicographic concept here is very different from the prescriptive tradition of Dr S. Johnson: the lexicographer is the objective recorder of the language.The purpose of OED, as stated by its editors, has nothing to do with prescription or proscription of any kind. The conception of this new type of dictionary was born in a discussion at the English Philological Society. It was suggested by Frederick Furnivall, later its second titular editor, to Richard Trench, the author of the first book on lexicology of the English language. Richard Trench read before the society his paper â€Å"On Some Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries†, and that was how the big enterprise was started.At once the Philological Society set to work to gather the material, volunteers offered to help by collecting quotations. Dictionary-making became a sort of national enterprise. A special committee prepared a list of books to be read and assigned them to the volunteers, sending t hem also special standard slips for quotations. By 1881 the number of readers was 800, and they sent in many thousands of slips. The tremendous amount of work done by these volunteers testifies to the keen interest the English take in their language.The first part of the Dictionary appeared in 1884 and the last in 1928. Later it was issued in twelve volumes and in order to accommodate new words a three volume Supplement was issued in 1933. These volumes were revised in the seventies. Nearly all the material of the original Supplement was retained and a large body of the most recent accessions to the English language added. The principles, structure and scope of â€Å"The Oxford English Dictionary†, its merits and demerits are discussed in the most comprehensive treaty by L. V. Malakhovsky. Its prestige is enormous.It is considered superior to corresponding major dictionaries for other languages. The Oxford University Press published different abridged versions. â€Å"The Sho rter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles† formerly appeared in two volumes, now printed on thinner paper it is bound in one volume of 2,538 pages. It differs from the complete edition in that it contains a smaller number of quotations. It keeps to all the main principles of historical presentation and covers not only the current literary and colloquial English but also its previous stages.Words are defined and illustrated with key quotations. â€Å"The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English† was first published in 1911, i. e. before the work on the main version was completed. It is not a historical dictionary but one of current usage. A still shorter form is â€Å"The Pocket Oxford Dictionary†. Another big dictionary, also created by joined effort of enthusiasts, is Joseph Wright’s â€Å"English Dialect Dictionary†. Before this dictionary could be started upon, a thorough study of English dialects had to be completed.With this a im in view W. W. Skeat, famous for his â€Å"Etymological English Dictionary† founded the English Dialect Society as far back as 1873. Dialects are of great importance for the historical study of the language. In the 19th century they were very pronounced though now they are almost disappearing. The Society existed till 1896 and issued 80 publications, mostly monographs. Curiously enough, the first American dictionary of the English language was compiled by a man whose name was also Samuel Johnson. Samuel Johnson Jr. a Connecticut schoolmaster, published in 1798 a small book entitled â€Å"A School Dictionary†. This book was followed in 1800 by another dictionary by the same author, which showed already some signs of Americanisation. It included, for instance, words like tomahawk and wampum, borrowed into English from the Indian languages. It was Noah Webster, universally considered to be the father of American lexicography, who emphatically broke away from English idi om, and embodied in his book the specifically American usage of his time.His great work, â€Å"The American Dictionary of the English Language†, appeared in two volumes in 1828 and later sustained numerous revised and enlarged editions. In many respects N. Webster follows the lead of Dr S. Johnson (the British lexicographer). But he has also improved and corrected many of S. Johnson’s etymologies and his definitions are often more exact. N. Webster attempted to simplify the spelling and pronunciation that were current in the USA of the period. He devoted many years to the collection of words and the preparation of more accurate definitions. N.Webster realised the importance of language for the development of a nation, and devoted his energy to giving the American English the status of an independent language, distinct from British English. At that time the idea was progressive as it helped the unification of separate states into one federation. The tendency became reac tionary later on, when some modern linguists like H. Mencken shaped it into the theory of a separate American language, not only different from British English, but surpassing it in efficiency and therefore deserving to dominate and supersede all the languages of the world.Even if we keep within purely linguistic or purely lexical concepts, we shall readily see that the difference is not so great as to warrant American English the rank of a separate language, not a variant of English (see p. 265). The set of morphemes is the same. Some words have acquired a new meaning on American soil and this meaning has or has not penetrated into British English. Other words kept their earlier meanings that are obsolete and not used in Great Britain. As civilisation progressed different names were given to new inventions on either side of the Atlantic. Words were borrowed from different Indian languages and from Spanish.All these had to be recorded in a dictionary and so accounted for the existen ce of specific American lexicography. The world of today with its ever-growing efficiency and intensity of communication and personal contacts, with its press, radio and television creates conditions which tend to foster not an isolation of dialects and variants but, on the contrary, their mutual penetration and integration. Later on, the title â€Å"International Dictionary of the English Language† was adopted, and in the latest edition not Americanisms but words not used in America (Britishisms) are marked off.N. Webster’s dictionary enjoyed great popularity from its first editions. This popularity was due not only to the accuracy and clarity of definitions but also to the richness of additional information of encyclopaedic character, which had become a tradition in American lexicography. As a dictionary N. Webster’s book aims to treat the entire vocabulary of the language providing definitions, pronunciation and etymology. As an encyclopaedia it gives explana tions about things named, including scientific and technical subjects.It does so more concisely than a full-scale encyclopaedia, but it is worthy of note that the definitions are as a rule up-to-date and rigorous scientifically. Soon after N. Webster’s death two printers and booksellers of Massachusetts, George and Charles Merriam, secured the rights of his dictionary from his family and started the publication of revised single volume editions under the name â€Å"Merriam-Webster†. The staff working for the modern editions is a big institution numbering hundreds of specialists in different branches of human activity.It is important to note that the name â€Å"Webster† may be attached for publicity’s sake by anyone to any dictionary. Many publishers concerned with their profits have taken this opportunity to issue dictionaries called â€Å"Webster’s†. Some of the books so named are cheaply-made reprints of old editions, others are said to be entirely new works. The practice of advertising by coupling N. Webster’s name to a dictionary which has no connection with him, continues up to the present day. A complete revision of N. Webster’s dictionary is achieved with a certain degree of regularity.The recent â€Å"Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language† has called forth much comment, both favourable and unfavourable. It has been greatly changed as compared with the previous edition, in word selection as well as in other matters. The emphasis is on the present-day state of the language. The number of illustrative quotations is increased. To accommodate the great number of new words and meanings without increasing the bulk of the volume, the editors excluded much encyclopaedic material.The other great American dictionaries are the â€Å"Century Dictionary†, first completed in 1891; â€Å"Funk and Wagnalls New Standard Dictionary†, first completed in 1895; the â€Å"Random House Dictionary of the English Language†, completed in 1967; â€Å"The Heritage Illustrated Dictionary of the English Language†, first published in 1969, and C. L. Barnhart’s et al. â€Å"The World Book Dictionary† presenting a synchronic review of the language in the 20th century. The first three continue to appear in variously named subsequent editions including abridged versions.Many small handy popular dictionaries for office, school and home use are prepared to meet the demand in reference books on spelling, pronunciation, meaning and usage. An adequate idea of the dictionaries cannot be formed from a mere description and it is no substitute for actually using them. To conclude we would like to mention that for a specialist in linguistics and a teacher of foreign languages systematic work with a good dictionary in conjunction with his reading is an absolute necessity.